CarderPlanet
Professional
Millions of scientists and philosophers have offered thousands of answers to the question of what underlies everything. In particular, the answer that neuroscientists and neurophysiologists can give is pretty straightforward: it all starts in our head. It is in the brain that our real life takes place - it creates the picture that we see, the taste that we feel, our perception of ourselves in space, tactile sensations and, finally, emotions and feelings.
The 1960s were a good decade for many sciences, neuroscience in particular. It was then that a very important element was added to the picture of how the human nervous system works and works, namely, neurotransmitters were discovered. The fact that the brain (like the entire human nervous system) consists of a large number of cells, called neurons, had been known for a long time by that time. Neurons are pretty unusual cells. Each of them has many processes, and through them, as if holding each other's hands, nerve cells interact with each other and transmit nerve impulses in the body. The number of these neural connections, also called synaptic, is difficult to imagine - each of the 100-200 billion nerve cells has about 10 thousand processes - each cell is connected in this network with each through 3-4 "handshakes".
A nerve impulse passes through the processes of neurons as an electrical discharge, however, as scientists discovered in the sixties, electricity alone in some cases is not enough. There is a gap between the ends of the processes, and only when certain chemicals are released at the synapse, that is, the place where the ends of the processes meet, two neurons can transmit nerve impulses. These substances are very specific - there are quite a few of them, and each is responsible for its own specific set of functions. They, by the way, transmit nerve impulses from neurons to muscle tissue. These substances are called neurotransmitters.
Serotonin
If you choose the most famous neurotransmitter, then serotonin will definitely be at the top of the charts. It regulates the work of the gastrointestinal tract, "responsible" for physical activity, muscle tone and, of course, for a good mood. It is worth noting that when combined with different hormones, the spectrum of emotions associated with serotonin ranges from “okay” to euphoria. But a lack of serotonin causes depression and stress - he is also responsible for self-control and emotional stability. In order for serotonin to be produced in the body, two substances are needed: the amino acids tryptophan and glucose. Both can be found in foods rich in carbohydrates - pastry, chocolate, bananas, sweets. Perhaps that is why we try to seize a bad mood with them.
Dopamine
Dopamine is another popular neurotransmitter. He became famous as responsible for the production of a sense of pleasure, or rather, as a factor of internal reinforcement. The behavior that allows us to survive and reproduce is accompanied by pleasant sensations in representatives of our species - so that the choice in its favor was obvious. And dopamine is that very sweet carrot given by evolution. The maximum level of dopamine is reached, by the way, with food and sex. At the same time, it is enough to even think about the upcoming pleasure - dopamine is right there. This mechanism is very similar to the Pavlov's dog reflex.
It is assumed that dopamine is also released during the decision-making process - it is associated with a sense of reward, which promotes decision-making even at the level of unconscious deliberation. People with impaired dopamine production also experience decision-making problems.
Oxytocin
Oxytocin is a neurotransmitter and a hormone that women who have children have probably heard about: the frequency of uterine contraction depends on it (this property is used by injecting oxytocin for women in labor), breast milk production, and some scientists are inclined to think that it indirectly also controls erection in men.
As for the psychophysiological role of oxytocin, in the body it is responsible for trusting and warm relationships between people. Studies have shown that people who receive oxytocin are more likely to trust others, including strangers. The neurotransmitter itself is produced by close contact with a person, by touching and stroking. Especially a lot of it stands out during sex.
By the way, the relationship between mother and child is also controlled by oxytocin - when in contact with the mother, the child's feeling of anxiety decreases, a feeling of happiness and comfort arises. A purring kitten is a great example of the effects of oxytocin.
Using these properties, oxytocin is used to treat autistic people - it allows them to show more emotions when interacting with others.
Phenylethylamine
Phenylethylamine, strictly speaking, is not a neurotransmitter - it only triggers the production of dopamine and norepinephrine, a wakefulness mediator (it increases blood pressure and constricts blood vessels). By the way, among the derivatives of phenylethylamine reproduced in the laboratory are amphetamine and some psychedelics.
But that's not all that can be said about phenylethylamine. In the eighties in the United States, under the signature of Dr. Liebowitz, the work "Chemistry of Love" was published, which explained how phenylethylamine controls romantic feelings. As soon as he appears, butterflies begin to flutter in his stomach, and logic turns off. It was assumed that since this substance is also contained in chocolate, people who dream of love emotions can find consolation in it.
Liebovitz's hypothesis about the connection between love and phenylethylamine has not yet been proven, but the part about chocolate has been completely refuted - the fact is that phenylethylamine is destroyed in the body in a matter of minutes, so it does not have time to have any effect. Although the placebo effect, of course, has not been canceled.
Endogenous opiates
Endorphins (endogenous, that is, internal, morphines) got their name from the similarity of their action with opiates produced in the laboratory - primarily with morphine. They were discovered in the 70s, in the process of studying the mechanisms of acupuncture. It has been found that when narcotic painkillers are injected into the body, the pain-relieving effect of acupuncture itself also fades away. Scientists have suggested that the body independently produces substances similar in structure to morphines.
Endorphins have analgesic and anti-stress effects, reduce appetite, normalize pressure and respiratory rate, and accelerate regeneration processes in the body. In addition, the level of endorphin in the blood rises in stressful situations - it allows you to mobilize internal resources and not feel pain.
Happiness without end
Serotonin and dopamine, described above, are also famous for the fact that most of the existing drugs, as well as alcohol and cigarettes, one way or another increase their production and release. And this is where their danger lies - on this score there is a theory according to which with the regular introduction of substances that artificially cause the production of serotonin or dopamine, the body ceases to produce them without a "kick". This is the reason for the withdrawal syndrome - the effect of drugs in the body has already ended, and the production of neurotransmitters has not yet returned to normal. This is how addiction formation works.
The 1960s were a good decade for many sciences, neuroscience in particular. It was then that a very important element was added to the picture of how the human nervous system works and works, namely, neurotransmitters were discovered. The fact that the brain (like the entire human nervous system) consists of a large number of cells, called neurons, had been known for a long time by that time. Neurons are pretty unusual cells. Each of them has many processes, and through them, as if holding each other's hands, nerve cells interact with each other and transmit nerve impulses in the body. The number of these neural connections, also called synaptic, is difficult to imagine - each of the 100-200 billion nerve cells has about 10 thousand processes - each cell is connected in this network with each through 3-4 "handshakes".
A nerve impulse passes through the processes of neurons as an electrical discharge, however, as scientists discovered in the sixties, electricity alone in some cases is not enough. There is a gap between the ends of the processes, and only when certain chemicals are released at the synapse, that is, the place where the ends of the processes meet, two neurons can transmit nerve impulses. These substances are very specific - there are quite a few of them, and each is responsible for its own specific set of functions. They, by the way, transmit nerve impulses from neurons to muscle tissue. These substances are called neurotransmitters.
Serotonin
If you choose the most famous neurotransmitter, then serotonin will definitely be at the top of the charts. It regulates the work of the gastrointestinal tract, "responsible" for physical activity, muscle tone and, of course, for a good mood. It is worth noting that when combined with different hormones, the spectrum of emotions associated with serotonin ranges from “okay” to euphoria. But a lack of serotonin causes depression and stress - he is also responsible for self-control and emotional stability. In order for serotonin to be produced in the body, two substances are needed: the amino acids tryptophan and glucose. Both can be found in foods rich in carbohydrates - pastry, chocolate, bananas, sweets. Perhaps that is why we try to seize a bad mood with them.
Dopamine
Dopamine is another popular neurotransmitter. He became famous as responsible for the production of a sense of pleasure, or rather, as a factor of internal reinforcement. The behavior that allows us to survive and reproduce is accompanied by pleasant sensations in representatives of our species - so that the choice in its favor was obvious. And dopamine is that very sweet carrot given by evolution. The maximum level of dopamine is reached, by the way, with food and sex. At the same time, it is enough to even think about the upcoming pleasure - dopamine is right there. This mechanism is very similar to the Pavlov's dog reflex.
It is assumed that dopamine is also released during the decision-making process - it is associated with a sense of reward, which promotes decision-making even at the level of unconscious deliberation. People with impaired dopamine production also experience decision-making problems.
Oxytocin
Oxytocin is a neurotransmitter and a hormone that women who have children have probably heard about: the frequency of uterine contraction depends on it (this property is used by injecting oxytocin for women in labor), breast milk production, and some scientists are inclined to think that it indirectly also controls erection in men.
As for the psychophysiological role of oxytocin, in the body it is responsible for trusting and warm relationships between people. Studies have shown that people who receive oxytocin are more likely to trust others, including strangers. The neurotransmitter itself is produced by close contact with a person, by touching and stroking. Especially a lot of it stands out during sex.
By the way, the relationship between mother and child is also controlled by oxytocin - when in contact with the mother, the child's feeling of anxiety decreases, a feeling of happiness and comfort arises. A purring kitten is a great example of the effects of oxytocin.
Using these properties, oxytocin is used to treat autistic people - it allows them to show more emotions when interacting with others.
Phenylethylamine
Phenylethylamine, strictly speaking, is not a neurotransmitter - it only triggers the production of dopamine and norepinephrine, a wakefulness mediator (it increases blood pressure and constricts blood vessels). By the way, among the derivatives of phenylethylamine reproduced in the laboratory are amphetamine and some psychedelics.
But that's not all that can be said about phenylethylamine. In the eighties in the United States, under the signature of Dr. Liebowitz, the work "Chemistry of Love" was published, which explained how phenylethylamine controls romantic feelings. As soon as he appears, butterflies begin to flutter in his stomach, and logic turns off. It was assumed that since this substance is also contained in chocolate, people who dream of love emotions can find consolation in it.
Liebovitz's hypothesis about the connection between love and phenylethylamine has not yet been proven, but the part about chocolate has been completely refuted - the fact is that phenylethylamine is destroyed in the body in a matter of minutes, so it does not have time to have any effect. Although the placebo effect, of course, has not been canceled.
Endogenous opiates
Endorphins (endogenous, that is, internal, morphines) got their name from the similarity of their action with opiates produced in the laboratory - primarily with morphine. They were discovered in the 70s, in the process of studying the mechanisms of acupuncture. It has been found that when narcotic painkillers are injected into the body, the pain-relieving effect of acupuncture itself also fades away. Scientists have suggested that the body independently produces substances similar in structure to morphines.
Endorphins have analgesic and anti-stress effects, reduce appetite, normalize pressure and respiratory rate, and accelerate regeneration processes in the body. In addition, the level of endorphin in the blood rises in stressful situations - it allows you to mobilize internal resources and not feel pain.
Happiness without end
Serotonin and dopamine, described above, are also famous for the fact that most of the existing drugs, as well as alcohol and cigarettes, one way or another increase their production and release. And this is where their danger lies - on this score there is a theory according to which with the regular introduction of substances that artificially cause the production of serotonin or dopamine, the body ceases to produce them without a "kick". This is the reason for the withdrawal syndrome - the effect of drugs in the body has already ended, and the production of neurotransmitters has not yet returned to normal. This is how addiction formation works.
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